Metabolic Syndrome and Depression in Police Officers

Metabolic Syndrome and Depression in Police Officers Laurie Cyr-Martel Introduction Approximately 780,000 sworn police officers are accounted for in the United States, (Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor 2014) and one out of eight officers are female. (U.S. Dept. of Labor Bureau of Justice Statistics 2007) The literature also supports that law enforcement is one of the most demanding professions in our country. (Marmar, C., McCaslin, S., Metzler, T., Best, S., Weiss, D., Fagan, Nelan,T. 2006: Gershon, R., Barocas, B., Canton, A., Li, X., Vlahov, D., 2009 : Wang, Z., Inslicht,S., Metzler, T., Henn-Haase, C., McCaslin , S., 2010) The general public’s perception is in direct conflict with the reality of those who wear the badge to protect and serve. The media either sensationalizes the profession or degrades the profession dependent on the situation. Men and woman place themselves in harm’s way for the protection of their communities while compromising their own emotional and physical health. The police academy does not prepare the offic er for the misery and sorrow encountered once they graduate, nor are they prepared for how the occupation will effects their mind and body. Exposure to human tragedy, trauma, violence, lack of support both personally and professionally can increase the stress the officer’s experience. The cumulative effect of stress within law enforcement can exacerbate underlying physical and behavioral conditions. Physical presentations appear as high blood pressure, increased glucose levels, chest pains and obesity, a condition liken to Metabolic Syndrome. Behavioral conditions present as anger, rage, irritation, bad moods or resentment. Working with police officers for the past fourteen years, eight of them on the street in uniform, allowed a unique perspective regarding their emotional and physical health. Literatures linking physical (metabolic syndrome) and behavioral (depression) conditions for the law enforcement population, although published, are limited. The following review of th e literature will attempt to provide an overview of Metabolic Syndrome and depression and how this might relate to those in law enforcement. Literature Review Definition Metabolic Syndrome (MetSyn) is a condition distinguished by several health issues that when placed together are the major risk factors for cardiovascular disease, diabetes, possible organ damage, and even mortality. (Han Lean 2011: Suls, J., Bunde J. 2005) These include high blood pressure, high blood sugar, high cholesterol and obesity. To review and determine the correlation more closely, studies throughout the literature use various biometrics. These include; measuring waist circumference, allowing a difference for centimeters for men and women, measuring the individual’s blood pressure, and monitoring fasting blood glucose. MetSyn is also referred to as a â€Å"cluster of anthropological and biochemical abnormalities that predispose an individual to coronary artery disease.† (Grundy, Brewer, Cleeman, Smith Lenfant, 2004) Although various definitions are found throughout the literature, a universal definition that every author, discipline, or diagnostician can agre e upon was not found. When a patient presents with at least three out of the five risk factors listed below, a diagnosis of Metabolic Syndrome can be made. (Thayyil, Jayakrishnan, Meharoof, Cheremanalil, J.2012) Regardless of a the differences among those definitions, the medical community agrees that if identification of MetSyn is diagnosed early, the practitioner can include preventative measures for Type 2 Diabetes and Cardio Vascular disease. (Huang 2009) One of the reasons this Syndrome is important to both the medical and behavioral sciences is that it would allow the medical practitioner to focus on the underlying medical concerns such as Type 2 Diabetes and Cardiovascular disease. Although these are medical diagnosis, the behavioral interventions might alleviate further medical compromise. Metabolic Syndrome and the Police Officer Literature supports the link between MetSyn and the law enforcement population. (Hartley, Knox, Fekedulegn, Barbosa-Leiker, Violanti, Andrew Burchfiel 2010). What is known in the world of medicine and psychology is that various psychological presentations such as anxiety and depression are presumed as associated risk factors to diseases encompassed in Metabolic Syndrome. (Hartley et al., 2010; Toker, Shirom Melamed. 2008; Skilton, Moulin, Terra, Bonnet. 2007; Kahl, Greggersen, Schweiger, Cordes, Balijepalli , Lo ¨sch, Moebus,S. 2012 ) MetSyn is considered an important cardiovascular risk factor in the development of cardiovascular disease. However, variations due to socioeconomic status, environmental, professional, spiritual, and cultural and ethnicity must be considered. An evaluation of 900 officers found 16.8% or 138 officers were found to have MetSyn. (Thayyil et al., 2012 ) Although the study was conducted in India, the conclusion and relevance to police work in general provided information relevant to MetSyn. MetSyn has more connections to health for the officer than just running the risk of experiencing a heart attack. Hypertension, dyslipidemia (abnormal amount of lipids in the blood), impaired glucose tolerance and obesity are all key elements of MetSyn. (Austin-Ketch, Violanti, Andrew, Hartley, Vena, J. 2010). As previously stated many factors are inherent in police work. Shift work is a contributory factor to the physical and psychological health of the officer and has been linked to MetSyn. Officers at higher risk for MetSyn and had a significant number of the components for MetSyn were officers who obtained six hours of sleep or less and worked shifts referred to as midnight shifts. (Violanti, J.,Burchfiel, C., Hartley, T., Mnatsakanova, A., Fekedulegn, D., Andrew, M., . . . Vila, B., 2009) Sleep deprivation also presents in the literature as increasing an individual’s risk for cardiovascular disease and various metabolic dysfunctions and is a common denominator in shift work. (Rajaratnam, S., Barger, L., Lockley, S., Shea, S., Wang, W., Landrigan, C., . . . Czeisler, C. 2011) It is important to identify officers at risk for MetSyn. Without identification, prevention and intervention would not occur. Depression and the Police Officer A 12 month study of 119 from four different departments, New York Police Department, and three departments in California took into account not only demographic variables, but baseline depression symptoms using the, child hood trauma, using the Early Trauma Inventory Self Report—Short Form to assess experience of childhood trauma before 18 years of age, The NEO Five-Factor Inventory used to assess neuroticism. The officers self-worth was also assessed using The World Assumptions Scale to determine the officers understanding and perception of how he relates to the world around him. After twelve months the officers were then given the Beck Depression scale, a self-inventory PTSD check list, a critical incident exposure questionnaire, and Life Experiences Survey to assess the negative effects of life changes in the twelve months, and the Work Environment Inventory to assess work stress. The study proposes that the longer the officer is â€Å"on the job† the more likely they are to experience moderately high depressive symptoms and partly sovereign from PTSD. (Wang Inslicht Wang, Z., Inslicht,S., Metzler, T., Henn-Haase, C., McCaslin , S., 2010) Metabolic Syndrome and Depression in the Police Officer Several pieces of literature support the association of MetSyn with depression. (Kahl, , Greggersen, Schweiger, Cordes, Balijepalli, Lo ¨sch, Moebus, 2012; Goldbacher, Bromberger, Matthews, 2009; Toker,S.,Shirom, A., Melamed,S. 2008: Skilton, M., P., Moulin, Terra, J., Bonnet, F. 2007 ). An increased occurrence in cardiovascular risk, Type 2 Diabetes (T2D), and hypertension was also presented in the literature when comparing depression and MetSyn. (Skilton et al.,2007) An emergent body of evidence suggests if an individual is diagnosed with depression, this should be considered an important risk factor for MetSyn. Furth more, if a major depressive disorder was present throughout their life, they were at greater risk to develop MetSyn. (Butnoriene, J., Bunevicius, A., Norkus, A., Bunevicius, R. 2014) Another contributory factor to MetSyn is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA). The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis might also lead to underlying association for MetSyn an d depression. When an officer reacts to a threat, the heart rate increases, pupils dilate to allow our visual perspective to widen, blood pressure rises as adrenaline causes the constriction of blood vessels which in turn increases pressure. We know that cortisol‘s main attribute is to increase energy to the body for survival. When the HPA is activated for survival, prolonged activation of the HPA can be a health risk. Cortisol antagonizes insulin. This might indicate to us that if the cortisol levels remain high, the pancreas –which secretes insulin would struggle to respond to the bodies demand for the insulin. If the glucose levels do not decrease, the cells in our body would not obtain the sugar they need. Thus, when cortisol patterns are no longer normal, and the HPA axis is constantly challenged and prolonged, individuals risk for hypertension, cardiovascular disease and even depression would be increased. (Violanti, Burchfiel Dorn, 2009) Literature further revi ewed MetSyn and the psychological characteristics that might exacerbate CVD and T2D. When depressed patients present with HPA hyperactivity, there is associations with a multitude of psychological characteristics, such as anxiety and anger. Furthermore, those with high cortisol who were depressed were more likely to have been diagnosed with MetSyn. (Goldbacher Matthews 2007) The general public has a view that most officers are young and healthy, and cannot comprehend the reason the officer would present with physical or emotional problems. Research is now proving what many of us within the law enforcement world knew for a very long time, the occupation compromises physical and emotional well-being. The literature points to one of the first cohesive studies that correlates physical and emotional health. Several tools used in the study reviewed both physical health and depressive signs and symptoms. The Buffalo Cardio Metabolic Occupational Stress Study or commonly known as BCOPS was provided to assess the physiological and psychological ramifications of the stress the officer encounters. Measuring the depressive symptoms was accomplished by using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression (CES-D) scale. The MetSyn was based on the guidelines provided by the American Heart Association and the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. The latitude given was much higher than listed above in the initial table which is from 2012. The individual MetSyn components included the following: (1) abdominal obesity (gender-specific waist circumference ≠¥102 cm in males, ≠¥88 cm in females), (2) hypertension (systolic blood pressure ≠¥ 130mmHg, diastolic blood pressure ≠¥ 85mmHg, (3) reduced HDL-C (gender-specific fasting HDL-C 40mg/dL in men, 50mg/dL in women, (4) elevated triglycerides (fasting triglycerides ≠¥ 150mg/dL, and (5) glucose intolerance (fasting serum glucose ≠¥ 100mg/dL, or reported treatment for diabetes. MetSyn was conside red present in individuals with three or more components.} Although differences in age, education and length of employment were present, similarities were present. MetSyn and depressive symptoms were significantly associated. (Hartley et al., 2010) As indicated earlier in this review, more men than women enter the profession of law enforcement. (Bureau of Justice Statistics 2007) Gender may play an important factor in this comorbidity in police work. The literature indicated that for women, depression might lead to MetSyn, but further study is needed. (Toker et al., 2007) Intervention It is important to identify those officers who might be at risk in order to implement prevention strategies. Once the comorbidities are identified, it is paramount to intervene and present the officer with resources that are cost effective, efficient and solution focused. Literature supporting intervention and treatment programs for the comorbidity of Metabolic Syndrome and depression in police officers is limited. The literature does advise that building an effective training protocol within departments, would provide the competencies needed when the officer faces stressors, thereby preventing the officer from detrimental psychological and physiological effects. Aarnetz, B., Arble, E., Backman., Lynch, A., Lublin., A.,(2013) Motivational interviewing is another modality listed in the literature to address and change officers behaviors that will presumably lead to healthier outcomes. (Anshel, M., Kang, M. 2008) The literature supporting treatment programs for this population within t he New England area is limited. Treatment programs that are in existence for this population are aimed at psychotherapy rather than treatment for co-morbid presentations. (Berard, 2012) The creation and implementation of a population health management program for law enforcement would impact health care policy. When a police department has a partnership with a health program which treats a chronic condition, adding another component of the officer’s wellness might be added at a reasonable cost. If the program has a direct impact on the officers health care cost, the Population Health Management program our yield a return on their investment into the program. Grossmeier, J. , Terry, P. , Anderson, D. , Wright, S. 2012) Conclusion Metabolic syndrome and depressive presentations could be the precursor to a multitude of health concerns, but especially Type 2 diabetes and cardio vascular disease. Diagnosis of this co-morbid condition would lead to intervention and preventative health and wellness programs within police departments. When one has the opportunity to glimpse into the â€Å"thin blue line† as it is referred to – one realizes that not all police departments speak openly about the officers’ health and wellness. There are gyms on premises, EAP (Employee Assistance Programs), and perhaps yearly training on health programs. Many times it is not until an officer â€Å"crumbles† psychologically and physically that the department is forced to review their policies and protocols regarding overtime, training, inter-departmental conflicts, and a multitude of other concerns . When administration is unable to recognize the problem, the officer will bear the ramifications. References Aarnetz, B. , Arble, E. , Backman., Lynch, A. , Lublin. , A., (2013) Assessment of Prevention  Program for Work-Related Stress among Urban Police Officers. International Archives  of Occupational Environmental Health. 86:79-88 Anshel, M. , Kang, M. (2008) Effectiveness of Motivational Interviewing on Changes in Fitness,  Blood Lipids, and Exercise Adherence of Police Officers: An Outcome-Based Action  Study. Journal of Correctional Health Care.14:48-62 Austin-Ketch, T. , Violanti, J. , Andrew, M. , Hartley, T. , Vena, J. (2010) Diabetes Metabolic  Syndrome: Clinical Research Reviews. Published by Elsvier (4) 82–88 Berard, P. , (2012) Program Helps Service Professionals. New England Psychologist  Retrieved from http://www.brattlebororetreat.org/usp Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Handbook. 2014-15 Edition, Police and Detectives, Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/ooh/protective-service/police-and-detectives.htm Butnoriene, J. , Bunevicius, A. , Norkus, A. , Bunevicius, R. (2014) Depression but not Anxiety  is Associated with Metabolic Syndrome in Primary Care Based Community Sample Psychoneuroendocrinology. 40: 269—276 Goldbacher, E. , Matthews, K. (2007). Are Psychological Characteristics Related to Risk of the  Metabolic Syndrome? A Review of the Literature. Annals of Behavioral Medicine 34(3):240–252 Grundy, S. , Brewer, H., Cleeman, J. , Smith, S. , Lenfant, C. (2004) Definition of Metabolic  Syndrome: Report of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute/American Heart Association Conference on Scientific issues Related to Definition. Arteriosclerosis Thrombosis Vascular Biology 24:13-18 Gershon, R. , Barocas, B., Canton, A. , Li, X. , Vlahov, D. (2009) Mental, Physical, and  Behavioral Outcomes Associated With Perceived Work Stress in Police Officers. Criminal Justice and Behavior. 36: 275-289 Goldbacher, M. , Bromberger, J. , Matthews, K. (2009) Lifetime History of Major Depression  Predicts the Development of the Metabolic Syndrome in Middle-aged Women. Psychosomatic Medicine Journal 71:266–272 Grossmeier, J. , Terry, P. , Anderson, D. , Wright, S.(2012) Financial Impact of Population  Health Management Programs: Reevaluating the Literature. Population health  management. (15) 3:129 134 Han, T. , Jean, M. (2011) Metabolic syndrome. Medicine 4 (39): 1 Hartley, T. , Knox, S. , Fekedulegn, D. , Barbosa-Leiker, C. , Violanti, J. , Andrew, M. ,  Burchfiel, C. (2010) Association between Depressive Symptoms and Metabolic Syndrome in Police Officers: Results from Two Cross-Sectional Studies. Journal of Environmental and Public Health. Volume 2012. Article ID 861219, 9 pages Huang, P. (2009) A comprehensive definition for metabolic syndrome. Disease Models   Mechanisms 2: 231-237 Kahl, K. , Greggersen, W. , Schweiger, U. , Cordes, J. , Balijepalli , C. , Lo ¨sch, C. , Moebus, S.  (2012). Prevalence of the Metabolic Syndrome in Unipolar Major Depression. European  Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 262: 313-320 Marmar, C. , McCaslin, S. , Metzler, T. , Best, S. , Weiss, D. , Fagan, . . . ,Nelan,T. (2006)  Predictors of Posttraumatic Stress in Police and Other First Responders. New York Academy of Sciences 1071:1-18  Office of Justice Programs. Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2007) Retrieved from  http://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=tptid=71 Rajaratnam, S. , Barger, L. , Lockley, S. , Shea, S. , Wang, W. , Landrigan, C., . . . Czeisler, C.  (2011) Sleep Disorders, Health, and Safety in Police Officers. Journal of American Medical Association. (306) 23: 2567-2578 Skilton, M. , Moulin, P. , Terra, J., Bonnet, F. (2007). Associations Between Anxiety,  Depression, and the Metabolic Syndrome. Biological Psychiatry 62:1251–1257 Suls, J. , Bunde, J. (2005) Anger, Anxiety, and Depression as Risk Factors for Cardiovascular  Disease: the Problems and Implications of Overlapping Affective Dispositions. Psych  Bull 131:260–300. Thayyil, J. , Jayakrishnan, T. , Meharoof, R. , Cheremanalil, J. (2012) Metabolic Syndrome  and Other Cardiovascular Risk Factors Among Police Officers. American Journal of Medical Science 4(12): 630–635. Toker, S. , Shirom, A. , Melamed, S. (2008) Depression and the Metabolic Syndrome: Gender-Dependent Associations. Depression and Anxiety. 25:661–669 Wang, Z. , Inslicht, S. , Metzler, T. , Henn-Haase, C. , McCaslin , S. (2010) A Prospective Study  of Predictors of Depression Symptoms in Police Psychiatry Research (1) 75:211–216 Violanti, J. , Andrew, M. , Burchfiel. C., Dorn, J, (2009) Cortisol Patterns and Brachial Artery  Reactivity in a High Stress Environment. Psychiatry Research 169:75–81 Violanti, J. , Burchfiel, C. , Hartley, T. , Mnatsakanova, A. , Fekedulegn, D. , Andrew, M., Vila, B., (2009) Atypical Work Hours and Metabolic Syndrome Among Police Officers. (64) 3: 194-200

Teen Drinking

Teen drinking is a serious problem and each year the statistics go higher and higher and more and more teens are drinking. This is a safety issue for teens are not old enough to know how to control their drinking. In an article I read called, â€Å"let my teenager drink†, written by T. R. Reid, suggests that it’s okay to let our teens drink. On the opposed side, Author Joseph A. Califano writes in his article that it is not okay to allow teens to drink. Reid does make some good points in his article.He believes that it is safer for our teens to be allowed to drink. He brought up binge drinking and how bad it is for teens. He says, â€Å"the only reason for this binge drinking is because teens are not allowed to drink so they do it secretly, most often in unsafe places like a car, or a house where adult supervision is not present†(REID). Reid claims that if we let our teens legally drink then teens can be safer and be able to drink throughout the evening instead o f getting drunk in the short amount of time they have before a social event.He believes teenagers are going to drink no matter what law is put in place, and that we should all just allow teens to legally drink. Author and current president of the National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University, Joseph A. Califano suggests the first article is a dangerous opinion to go by. He lists straight facts on this specific issue like, â€Å"in 2001 the Justice Department released an analysis comparing drinking rates in Europe and the United States.The conclusion: American tenth graders are less likely to use and abuse alcohol that the people of the same age in almost all European countries†(CALIFANO). Califano also said how Reid was wrong about the binge drinking, since British fifteen year olds are more than twice as likely to binge drink as those of American teens. He also lists the dangers of teen drinking. Califano says it can seriously damage the growth proc ess of the brain, and how teen drinking can lead to poor school performance.My opinion on this issue is teens should not be allowed to drink yet. I believe the drinking age should stay at twenty one. That is when a person is mature and developed enough to drink alcohol. There is a good reason why there are age limits on things. Rules and laws are made for good reasons, to keep us safe. I would not want to live in a country where there were no age limits on drinking, for I believe we Americans would get dumber than we already are.

Hunting Is A Staple Of American Tradition - 1788 Words

Hunting has become a staple of American traditions since the beginning of the first hunter/gatherers, to the Native Americans who have lived in the U.S for millennia, even all the way until present day. Much of today’s society looks at hunting as a cruel activity when in reality it has more of a positive effect on the environment than it does harm. There are an abundance of benefits that come from hunting. Some of the benefits of hunting are: it is the biggest contribution to conserving wildlife, the meat is healthier than commercially produced meat, many jobs are being supported out of hunting, and every hunter wants â€Å"to bag† the trophy animal; however, there are a few cons to this, which include poaching and interference by the activist†¦show more content†¦In Arizona, because of the lesser population of animals, one may only harvest one antlered deer, one elk, and two javelina per person per year. Additionally, the hunter must be drawn in a â€Å"lotte ry-style process for allocating the limited number of Arizona big game and other limited species hunt permit-tags to applicants† (AZ Game Fish). Not every applicant who applies for a tag gets drawn, this is part of the system of controlling the population of wildlife to ensure no animal is over hunted. However, in other states, there might be other regulations based on the population of the animal. For example, in Kentucky, one may be able to harvest four deer per year including one antlered deer (Kentucky Game and Fish). A famous example of overgrazing is the Kaibab plateau in northern Arizona in the early 1900’s. In summary, cattle was introduced to the plateau and thus created the problem of overgrazing the land. Then in 1906 Theodore Roosevelt declared the area the Grand Canyon National Game Preserve. The regulators of the area officially banned hunting of deer in 1907, in addition, the extermination of predators of deer was put into effect. By 1920 the deer popul ation had risen out of control from these laws and hunting was reopened. This overpopulation of deer caused overgrazing to happen once again and 60,000 deer starved within the next two winters. The image above shows the population of deer from 1905Show MoreRelatedThe Pros And Cons Of Gun Control1283 Words   |  6 Pagesself-defense, hunting, sporting activities, and security against tyranny. One side would claim that by removing guns from the hands of criminals would result in safer communities. While the other side would state that law-abiding citizens that own guns can reduce crime and that criminals will always have access to guns. At times at a certain border and in other part of the world, the criminals would be seen with military grade weaponry. History. 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The Analysis Of Mythology Of The Environment And The...

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Accounts of his early psychiatric cases, as related to his assistants at Bughholzli, provide an interesting overview of Jung as an individual as well as his formative ideas in the field of psychotherapy and analysis. These early cases and the conclusions he draws from them are, much like his predecessor and one-time colleague, Sigmund Freud, sometimes revolutionary and brilliant. Yet, as I had stated in my earlier paper on Jung, I also found there to be a frustratinglyRead MoreKhasak14018 Words   |  57 PagesMonday, 26 October 2009 Preface This dissertation titled ART AS A RENDEZVOUS OF MYTH AND MIND: A PSYCHOANALYTIC AND MYTHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF O V VIJAYAN’S THE LEGENDS OF KHASAK explores how the judicious selection and use of literary theory can account for the universal appeal of The Legends of Khasak, a belated self translated rendering of a famous regional work in Malayalam, Khasakkinte Ithihasam authored by the eminent writer O V Vijayan, and thus assert its artistic value. Divided into fourRead MoreThe Field Of Psychology : Carl Gustav Jung2353 Words   |  10 Pagesmystical and spiritual back into the healing processes, a result of Jung’s theories of the conscious and unconscious. Jung is often maligned by psychoanalysts and behaviorists, because his theories defend the opposite of their beliefs; yet he is lauded by free-thinkers, artists and liberals, because of his inclusion of the spiritual in his philosophies. Jung was interested in the inner processes of the mind, and those who would attemp t to understand them; because of this, he could be considered the world’sRead MorePyschoanalytic Personalities Essay Notes9106 Words   |  37 Pagesgreedy son who became so enchanted with the idea of having power and riches that he was willing to betray his own father in order to obtain these things for him. (You would be correct on both counts.) Why is it that themes like this spring so easily to mind? Why is such a scenario so easy to imagine? Carl Jung believed that we are preprogrammed to see and accept certain truths not only because of our own past experiences but also because of the cumulative past experiences of our ancestors. The story ofRead MoreThird Level7566 Words   |  31 Pagesways in which this is done. What do you think of the human tendancy to constantly move between the past, the present and the future? 7. What convinces Charley and Louisa about the existence of the third level? 8. What was the psychiatrist’s analysis of Charley’s description of the third level at the Grand Central Station? Signature of the Principal †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ ADDITIONAL IMPORTANT QUESTION WITH ANSWER HINTS: QA. What does Charley, the narrator, say aboutRead MoreThe Artist Allan Kaprow s Work2785 Words   |  12 PagesThe artist Allan Kaprow reconstructed the meaning of art when he began to make art that became the antithesis of the typical paint on canvas or sculptural form and began creating environments and performances which enacted the artist’s, as well as audience participation. Kaprow’s work from the 1970s, what he referred to as Activities, further analyzed and assessed social relations and their relationship to everyday social interactions. His previous artworks in the 1960s were also dedicated to socialRead MoreDrawing on Appropriate Theory Examples (I.E. Published Research, Case Studies and Personal Examples) Discuss the Extent to Which Managers Can Influence the Culture of an Organisation?4262 Words   |  18 Pagesideologies, and by normative criteria that provides the basis for allocating status, power, rewards, friendship, punishment, authority and respect . Culture determines what a group pays attention to and monitors in the external environment and how it responds to this environment. Thus, as Bate (1994) notes, for those who take an anthropological stance, organisational culture and organisational strategy are linked and interdependent. Culture, therefore, is not a separable facet of an organisation, itRead MoreThe Evolution Of Formal Personality Theory3340 Words   |  14 PagesJung, and continued to evolve from then on, encompassing cultural, gender, and identity issues. The early theorists concentrated on predominant concepts that struggled to account for every stage of development and explore into the depths of the human mind. Freud’s impact is so pervasive, his theory remains the foundational work for the study of personality all across the charts. Theorists Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Eric Erikson whom all embodied Freud’s concepts, along with multiple other theorists who